Amu Quiz 1- Math 302 Essay - 1509 Words

Part 1 of 1 - 20.0 Points Question 1 of 20 1.0 Points If a variable has possible values –2, 6, and 17, then this variable is A. both a continuous and a discrete variable B. a continuous variable C. neither a continuous nor a discrete variable D. a discrete variable Answer Key: D 1.0 Points Question 2 of 20 Which of the following correctly describes the relationship between a sample and a population? A. A population and a sample are not related. B. A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population to be studied. C. A sample is a group of populations that are subject to observation. D. A population is a group of samples that may or may not be included in a study Answer Key: B†¦show more content†¦Do not use a dollar sign. Note: $177,760 should be recorded as 177.76. 172.34 Answer Key: 171.25|173.50 Question 15 of 20 1.0 Points CEOSalaries.xls 14 KB The following data are the base salaries, in thousands of dollars, of 50 chief executive officers for a sample of companies doing business with the state of Connecticut. That is, the first entry in the table below corresponds to a salary of $125,000. A copy of this data set can be found in the Excel Workbook called CEOSalaries.xls. Use these data to answer questions 14 through 17. 125 157 113 127 201 165 145 119 148 158 148 168 117 105 136 136 125 148 108 178 179 191 225 204 104 205 197 119 209 157 209 205 221 178 247 235 217 222 224 187 265 148 165 228 239 245 152 148 115 150 Find the median of the CEO salaries, in thousands of dollars, rounded to 2 decimal places. Do not use a dollar sign. Note: $177,760 should be recorded as 177.76. 165 Answer Key: 160.00|170.00 Question 16 of 20 1.0 Points CEOSalaries.xls 14 KB The following data are the base salaries, in thousands of dollars, of 50 chief executive officers for a sample of companies doing business with the state of Connecticut. That is, the first entry in the table below corresponds to a salary of $125,000. A copy of this data set can be found in the Excel

The Boardinghouse By James Joyce - 1529 Words

She runs away in anguish as her husband chases her with a cleaver ready to end her at any minute. Mrs. Mooney is able to escape her husband’s attempt to kill and destroy her life. She has two adult children and attempts to start a new life with them by opening up a boardinghouse. Her reputation is already tarnished because her husband was known for being a mad drunk and she separated from the marriage which was a taboo of this time. Although in her time she was looked down upon for her actions, modern day feminist would have praised her because she was freeing herself. In the short story The Boardinghouse, by James joyce, Mrs Mooney would be praised by feminists for unapologetically breaking gender roles, but ironically she imposes those roles onto her daughter. Mrs. Mooney broke a societal rule of marrying beneath her status of wealth. â€Å"She was a woman who was quite able to keep things to herself: a determined woman. She had had married her father’s foreman and o pened a butcher’s shop near Spring Gardens† (pg 38). Soon after her father passed away Mr. Mooney had become a reckless drunk and gambled a lot of their money away. The last strike for her was when â€Å"One night he went for the cleaver and she had to sleep in a neighbor’s house† (pg 38). After enduring that frightful night she was able to obtain a separation from him by the Priest. It was not common to get separated from your spouse in these days so she knew that she would her reputation would again be tarnished in

Written task Free Essays

This task will be related to Part 1: â€Å"Language in cultural context† specified in the topic of â€Å"Language and Identity’ and how both (language and identity) are related to each other. In order to find the relation, the movie â€Å"The Freedom Writers† was studied. This film portrays the achievement of dreams, and how people living in the same place can express their language in different ways depending on their social and cultural history. We will write a custom essay sample on Written task or any similar topic only for you Order Now The task was centered on how language is shaped by a cultural context, represented with a diary entry written from a character from the movie: Ben. He talks about his and his classmates’ experiences with Miss Erin as a teacher and how her life changed together with their own, and how social differences interfere in their social relationship. This diary is separated into different sections according to what he lives every day, talking in present tense. Along the diary there are quotes from the teacher and the students, used to emphasize the main theme of this task: language and culture. Through those quotes the teacher showed code switching, trying to get to know her students by their own language. Ben tells his story his personal point of view and sometimes he compares the teacher’s story to his own. Nowadays this is a big problem for some people who go to different countries and still don’t adapt. That’s why this was a good exercise for better understanding of the problem (cultural/social) and practice better writing. A diary entry was chosen for this task because it is interesting how the point of view from a certain character can change the way a general audience can think about a certain topic. The characteristics of the airy entries were to add different dates to each paragraph and write in first person. *Written task based on the movie â€Å"The Freedom Writers†- directed by Richard Laggardness- year 2007 Rationale words: 300 How my story begins to change Monday 1 2: This is my first diary entry, so I will talk a little about myself. I lived all my life in Los Angles, California. One day I had to move to Long Beach, California for family reasons. In Los Angles my teachers were very serious, formal and not so appealing with students. For some reason everyone thought we were educated, but the real taxation is that teachers mistreated us. Once I moved to Long beach everyone was different from me, not in the educational part, but in the physical and language aspect; I was white and everyone else black, I talk in a certain tone and they talk in a different one. They discriminated me for those differences and I wasn’t able to defend myself, so instead I stayed quiet and ignorant. Suddenly my story began to change when Miss Erin arrived to school. I always saw something good about her; she wasn’t like the other teachers; she seems educated, DOD looking and she was white. I didn’t feel alone anymore around my classmates: someone was Just like me in the physical aspect. However, at the beginning I saw a strange attitude from her towards the class; she didn’t understand us very well. I didn’t know why, she did not look racist, but with time I was able to realize she didn’t understand the way my classmates talked. I say â€Å"my classmates† because I do not feel I belong to them, not now. Tuesday 19th: Today, Miss Erin had chalk on her skirt and one of the boys of the class told her: do you want give me fries with that shake†. Everybody laughed very hard, she laughed a little so nobody notice she didn’t understand the Joke, I knew she didn’t understand what he meant by that phrase, because that used to happen to me too, in fact I still don’t get them but I am used to those strange phrases. I realized that the misunderstanding was mutual, she didn’t understand them and they didn’t understand her since she used very professional words like: auxiliary, abrogate, acrimony etc. Nevertheless, she tried so hard to understand the class’ engage and be part of them but her culture was too different from theirs, however I was able to realize something; she didn’t want to learn the language Just to be updated, but because she cared about us and our education. Miss Campbell told Miss Erin we had to learn real discipline but how could she teach us discipline if she couldn’t communicate verbally with us? Wednesday 20th: Today at class, Miss Erin started to imitate the way they talked, she told us: â€Å"My badness† when she tried to be nice with us, as a consequence everyone started laughing because it was mispronounced. Also she got mad sometimes with one of my classmates, so she had to punish him verbally in a way that he could understand her, by saying: â€Å"This is a buck you’ to me and everyone in your class†. Either for worse or better she tried to communicate. I thought she was very brave to learn their language and face them in bad moments, it was certainly something that I would never do, I am too fearful. Friday 22nd: On this day Miss Erin told us she realized that the bad pronunciation and spelling mistakes came from their bad attitude, since they didn’t care about their own education. She notices that they express that attitude through drawings (that I never was able to understand) it was like their language was expressed in a simple drawing. She saw one of the drawings my classmates did; it was a comic mocking one black boy of the class. That was the moment when Miss Erin explained to us the story of the holocaust; nobody in my class knew what it was, neither did l. She told us that this event of the past was related to discrimination Just like the type they were doing to this boy. She explained how important education was for us, the opportunity it eave us to; go to school, college, work etc. She sounded really sad and mad at the same time, because we were losing a chance that many people throw away. I felt happy in a certain way because finally there was a teacher who cared about us in a deeper way. Right after that, she gave us some diaries where we could write, not only to write our feelings but also to improve our grammar. At the beginning, of course, nobody wanted to write because they weren’t used to express their feelings and writing their daily life on a piece of paper. Personally, I was scared for someone to e my life, get to know my fears and use that evidence to mock me. Nevertheless, one girl in my class took the first diary, which leads to the rest of the class to pick one too. Monday 24th: Miss Erin, arrived to school with a big surprise; everyone started to write in their diaries, it was awesome how they started to care about their grammar and their attitude was instantly changed, they were happier, their grades began to rise; it seems like writing took away all their problems. I can talk by myself to; I’m not afraid anymore of my classmates and our cultural differences, in fact, now I have friends. However, Miss Erin still doesn’t get the language; one day one boy told her: â€Å"No that don’t fly ‘ma†. And she told him â€Å"I’m not your mom†. Of course everyone laughed, including me, but not mocking, instead, they told her that was a sign of respect. Now that two years have passed from the first time we saw Miss Erin, she has learned our language and we all make Jokes between each other. All this effort came from her, that’s why I have to thank her for teaching us to be better persons with the rest of the people and most important, with ourselves. Task words: 1. 000 How to cite Written task, Papers

The Gift Of Acabar By Og Mandino free essay sample

Essay, Research Paper Reaching for the Skies In a universe where merely money affairs, Og Mandino and Buddy Kaye s The Gift Acabar presents a affluent penetration on what sort of stuff life should be made. In a simple narrative of a male child s battle to maintain his dreams from being destroyed by life s hardship, the writers provide the Credenda that sums up life s significance. The usage of supernatural component, in the signifier of a miracle, brought a alteration in the character s personality. It someway provides a deeper significance of the events that took topographic point in his life. In such a immature age, the Lapp male child Tulo is faced with great duties. He already lost his parents, who were really close to him. The state of affairs became more ambitious when a awful storm came and he was the one supplying a life for his younger sister, Joana. We will write a custom essay sample on The Gift Of Acabar By Og Mandino or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Furthermore, the Sun go forthing Kalvala for over two months of all time twelvemonth makes day-to-day economic life hard. So goes Tulo s battle with life. With the star of right beside him to give him trust and counsel, he was able to confront the obstructions in his life and touch the lives of the people in their little small town. The scene contributes to the intent of the narrative to supply a challenge which would better a adult male s character and do him a stronger single. Tulo underwent the procedure, got hurt, felt bad, and finally recovered. The rough environment besides makes an ambiance where 1 could experience the wretchedness and sadness that affects the narrative. The coming of the Star Acabar and Star of Lirra literally and symbolically gave visible radiation to the people. As an inspirational work, The Gift of Acabar teaches the readers that to fight is the lone certain manner for anyone to accomplish his full potency and that hardship is non a expletive, it is a approval. It s a good book that will state the readers that there s ever visible radiation in darkness. But it would hold been better if the authors thought of another manner in repairing the struggle. Miracles as performed in the Bible service to do the people believe in God, non to work out life s troubles. Inspirational narratives make a stronger impact when the people could really associate to it.

Killing the Innocence in War, Justified or Murder

Abstract The debate surrounding the justification of deaths of innocent people caused by warring soldiers during war is a complicated issue to deal with. For fear of being attacked by disguised enemies, soldiers have ended up killing innocent civilians including older men, women, and children. While some people have argued that this may be acceptable, others think otherwise.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Killing the Innocence in War, Justified or Murder? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To a large extent, this is linked to the belief that human beings are mostly reasonable. Generally, killing of civilians during war time is regarded as a serious offence that should be dealt with carefully if the innocent have to receive protection. On the other hand, however, it is possible for warring soldiers to find themselves in difficult situations requiring them to act fast to protect themselves from attackers unknown to them. This is especially true whenever a soldier is fighting on the enemy’s soil. While it is ordinarily believed that most civilians especially women and children are the innocent ones, there are instances where they have been used by soldiers to ferry dangerous weapons to be used against the opponents. This has led to situations where a soldier ignores the fact a civilian may be innocent and goes ahead to kill in self defense. This is based on the fact that it may be difficult to determine the innocence of the civilian. To be on the safe side, soldiers generally regard every person as a potential threat. Introduction The appeal to what would cause outrage in the general sentiments of humanity is a common way to think about the elements of normal moral perception of which each person is thought to be capable. Certain things are thought to be so heinous that any person would be outraged when perceiving them. The killing of civilians during war time is one of the commonly cite d examples of this kind of monstrous act (May, 2005). But consider, for a moment, the conditions of war fare when one is acting in enemy territory. In some war time situations, every person, soldier or civilian, is a potential threat. If the civilians seem to be unarmed, and the soldiers are armed, then the idea of the civilians as potential threats is only partially blunted, because the soldiers often do not know which civilians are members of the enemy forces.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Arguments for and Against Killing the Innocent in War It is clearly an outrage against the sentiments of humanity for soldiers to kill civilian men, women, and children? Initially, it seems that the answer would be clearly yes, as was held by the American military tribunal that convicted Lieutenant Calley. The shooting of seemingly unarmed civilians, especially children, at point blank range, appea red to be morally outrageous. Virtually, all societies have had strong moral prohibitions against the taking of innocent life (McMahan, 2009). The standard morally acceptable bases for justified killings, whether in self defense or in defense of others, can not be seen to justify killing those who do not have the capacity to harm or kill a well armed, typically male, adult soldier. Ordinarily, soldiers are trained to kill. When soldiers follow their training, and kill, it is not as much of an outrage as it would be for a non soldier to engage in such killing. But when a soldier or non soldier kills an innocent person, especially a child, this is considered to be enough of an outrage to our civilized instincts to think that it should be heavily sanctioned so as to prevent future acts of this sort at almost any cost (Buhk, 2012). In My Lai massacre, it is uncontested that Lieutenant Calley and his men killed more than 100 unarmed civilian men, women, and children. However, as one read s through the various court opinions in the case, there is quite a lot of disagreement of how best to characterize these killings. As pointed out earlier, the military tribunal found Calley guilty of war crimes, and the Court of Military Review upheld the conviction. But the first civilian court to consider the case took a very different position. Here is how the U.S. District Court characterized some of the facts: The petitioner was 25 years of age and had been an enlisted man for approximately 14 years. The petitioner’s first assignment in Vietnam was at Doc Pho. This was the first indoctrination about the character of the potential enemy. He was told that women were as dangerous as men, and that children were even more dangerous because they were unsuspected. He was also informed that women were frequently better shots than the men and that the children were used to plant mines and booby traps. During Calley’s earlier limited missions, the unit was continually subje ct to fire from unknown and unseen individuals.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Killing the Innocence in War, Justified or Murder? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A number of men in the company had been killed or wounded and prior to the operation at My Lai, they had never seen the persons responsible for the death or injuries of their buddies. Consequently, the formed the opinion that civilians were in part responsible. When Calley was supposedly to go to My Lai and kill everyone there, his background assumption seems to have been that all the people in the village, including men, women, and children, were enemies and potential threats. The U.S. District Court, therefore, granted Calley’s petition for habeas corpus relief in part because of how it understood the facts. On the other hand, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit reversed the U.S. District, also at least in part because of its very different construal of the factual record. In reversing the U.S. District Court, the Circuit Court of Appeals seemed to see the My Lai incident as nothing other than a slaughter of unarmed, unresisting old men, women, and children. What complicated the picture in My Lai was that the distinction between civilian and combatant had become blurred, with even fairly small children being used to transport weapons. So while there may be strong sentiments against the killing of civilians, especially children, there was a possible defense in the case of My Lai that might have been an exception to the moral judgment about what was normally acceptable or appropriate behavior. For there was reason, according to the US District Court, to believe that some civilians, and even some children, could be trying to inflict injury or death on the American soldiers in this Vietnamese hamlet.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More At Calley’s military trial, and also in the US Circuit Court of Appeals, such reasons were indeed considered and rejected, after much discussion and debate. However, the US District Court seemed to believe that some of the civilians who were killed might have been thought to be threats to the soldiers in Lieutenant Calley’s unit. In retrospect, it seems that the District Court opinion was seriously flawed. For even if Calley had feared that the civilians in the My Lai hamlet might be enemy soldiers in disguise, they gave no indication that they were armed or that they were posing an immediate threat to Calley and his men. According to McMahan (2009), the moralized notion of a combatant as anyone who poses a threat in war is different from the legal notion. In law, combatant status is accorded to persons who satisfy certain criteria, such as disguising themselves visibly at a distance by some conventional sign, carrying their arms openly, subordinating themselves to a h ierarchy of authority and command, and obeying the laws of war. Failure to satisfy such criteria can result in the forfeiture of combatant status under the law. While combatants in this legal sense are all presumed to pose a threat, not all of those who pose a threat in war are combatants in this sense. While all those who pose a threat in war are combatants in the moral sense, a major problem in war theory is that there are many people who pose a threat in war who would not be considered combatants by anyone (McMahan, 2009). In partial defense of the District Court, I would point out that we do not always require soldiers to prove that enemy soldiers pose an immediate threat before it is considered justifiable to kill them. It may be too late by the time it discovered that suspected enemy soldiers are concealing not only their identities but also their weapons. The point here is not to argue that Calley should have been relieved of responsibility, but only to indicate that even in this seemingly clear case, two courts came to different conclusions about how to regard the My Lai massacre based on how they reconstructed the threat faced by Calley and his men in Vietnam. This discussion does not call into question the normal sentiment that innocent life should be preserved. Rather, what is uncertain is the very judgment that a certain adult or even a child is to be seen as an innocent person. And yet it is this judgment, really a matter of moral perception, which is crucial to the determination of whether it was indeed an outrage for Lieutenant Calley’s unit to kill civilians in the hamlet of My Lai in Vietnam. Defenses against Killing In the US tort law, one way to make sense of whether one is liable for a given harm that he or she did not intend to cause is to ask whether one violated a duty of care owed to the person armed (May, 2005). To ascertain if one had such a duty, one looks, among other things, at what the burden would have been to the agent if he or she had conformed to the duty. If the crucial issue before us concerns the possible culpable ignorance or moral negligence of soldiers, then the tort analysis of duty and negligence becomes relevant. What makes many battlefield situations so tragic is that the cost of acting with due care toward civilians is often that the soldiers risk death to themselves. In non battlefield situations, one is hardly ever faced with imminent death if he or she exercises due care towards others in his or her life. It is for this reason that the superior orders defense shows up most commonly in the battlefield situations, and not very often off the battlefield. It may be helpful to think of conspiracy as a model of most types of shared or collective responsibility. If Susan, Smith, and Alex recruit Peter to drive a gateway car in a bank robbery scheme cooked up by Susan, then it makes sense to think of all four as collectively responsible for the resulting bank robbery. This is especially appa rent if Peter is paid well for his contribution and understands perfectly, how her contribution to this joint venture will aid in its successful completion. The driver, Peter, is a cog in a machine like enterprise that will make the robbery possible in ways that would not be true if any of the four people involved were acting on their own or in only a loosely connected manner. For this reason, they are collectively responsible for the results of their joint undertaking. Their individual responsibility will depend on the role that each plays in the joint venture. Suppose that while Peter is driving away from the scene of the crime pedestrian steps off a curb in the path of the gang’s fleeing car. Peter, generally a compassionate person begins to apply the brake, but Susan, the insensitive ring leader puts a gun to Peter’s head and urges him to drive on to avoid being court. Should Peter be held responsible for the injuries of the pedestrian as well as for the robbery? O n the assumption that one held a gun to Peter’s head to get him to join the conspiracy in the first place, Peter seems to be in a different moral position with respect to the pedestrian’s injuries than with respect to the robbery itself. Certainly, Peter appeared to have a choice of whether to join the robbery conspiracy, but not much of a choice about whether to run down the pedestrian. Was it a moral choice of Peter to ignore the order given by Susan? There are many parallel cases in international law, such as when a soldier or subordinate feels that his or her life is threatened if he or she does not follow orders. The same consideration should be operative, making us reluctant to say that in such situations, there is a moral choice available to the soldier (Kurtz Turpin, 1999). In cases of collective guilt, subtleties of context are still relevant in determining how to apportion blame to the members of the group, especially concerning legal blame and guilt (Buhk, 2012). It is, however, important to place the reasonable person standard into the specific context that the actual person was faced with. In order to do this, it is often necessary to bring in some of the beliefs of the actual person in considering what a reasonable person would have done. On the other hand, battlefield situations are so abnormal that it will often be hard to merely drop a reasonable person into a situation without taking into account how the actual person in question reacted to the situation. On several occasions, war crime tribunals have had to decide what price is too high to pay in order to expect people to reasonably exercise due care not to injure one another. In the case of Lieutenant Calley, it may be true that he and his soldiers feared for their own lives if they did not do what they thought they had been legitimately ordered to do. In Calley’s case, he never claimed that someone literally had a gun to his head, forcing him to shoot the civilians. I n the same way, his concern that the seemingly innocent civilians might be enemies in disguise was not sufficient to establish the proposition that he had no other moral choice but to follow orders, for it is important to consider what sort of threat those civilians posed. If the killings of the civilians had been clearly and unambiguously wrong, then Calley would have needed a very strong showing that he had no moral choice but to do what was clearly and unambiguously wrong. An important question that to be asked is whether a reasonable person in Calley’s situation would believe that these civilians posed a threat to his safety, and that of his troops. If so, then perhaps even moral choice was restricted in this situation. Conclusion Much philosophical discussion about political violence is taken up with argument about whether and to what extent acts of violence can be justified as a means to good ends. According to Kurtz and Turpin (1999), there are limit on what may justif iably be done in pursuit of good or worthy ends. Even though many actions can be justified by their beneficial consequences, some actions are simply wrong in themselves. Some people typically take the view that, other than in circumstances of war, the only acceptable justification for violence is that of self defense or defense of others from wrongful attack. Persons have moral rights not to be wrongfully injured or killed, and consequently, they have rights to defend themselves against wrongful physical attacks. It is also sometimes argued that to violently attack someone who is not engaged in or threatening violence is a kin to punishing an innocent person. Conversely, one who engages in wrongful violence against another may be said to have relinquished his or her normal rights to be attacked. We can only be justified in using as much violence against an attacker, however, as is required to defend ourselves. From the arguments presented in this paper, it is apparent that one of th e tests of whether an act of the defendant violates the requirement by law is if the act shocks the conscience of humanity. In most cases, there is an overlap of the law and morality indicating the relevance of moral matters to questions of whether a crime was committed wrongfully or not. It is, therefore, important for the court to exercise considerable restraint in prosecuting, convicting, and sentencing soldiers for deaths occurring during war. References Buhk, T. T. (2012). True Crime in the Civil War: Cases of Murder, Treason, Counterfeiting, Massacre, Plunder, Abuse. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. Kurtz, L.R. Turpin, J. E. (1999). Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Massachusetts: Academic Press. May, L. (2005). Crimes against Humanity: A Normative Account. New York: Cambridge University Press. McMahan, J. (2009). Killing in War. New York: Cambridge University Press. This essay on Killing the Innocence in War, Justified or Murder? was written and submitted by user Jasiah David to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Aristotles Poetics essays

Aristotle's Poetics essays Aristotle could be considered the first popular literary critic. Unlike Plato, who all but condemned written verse, Aristotle breaks it down and analyses it so as to separate the good from the bad. He studies in great detail what components make a decent epic or tragedy. The main sections he comes up with are form, means and manner. For most drama and verse, Aristotles rules are a fairly good measure of the quality of a piece of written work. In modern day however (modern meaning within the last century), certain changes in the nature of dramatic writing have started opening a gap between Aristotelian criticism and what is actually being produced on the stage. Changes in values and techniques brought about by Stanislavsky and some leaders of the popular feminist movement have shifted the direction of theatre. In light of these changes some of Aristotles rules are not applicable anymore. That is not to say that they are not sound. They simply do not apply. Sharon Pollock, one of Canadas great female playwrights and a strong leader of the popular feminist movement, is one example of a writer that breaks Aristotles mold. Her play Blood Relations sits on the edge of what Aristotle would call tragedy. Aristotle states that the form of tragedy is an imitation of a noble and complete action, having the proper magnitude(Aristotle 6). Here we have Lizzie Borden murdering her own parents in a fit of rage. The murders happen after years of abuse and negative attitudes from almost everyone she knows. The act of murdering ones parents is far from noble. It could however, be seen as noble seeing as the reason Lizzie kills them is to stand up for her freedom of thought and direction in life. According to the rules laid down in Poetics, pity and fear arise through misfortune and the recognition of the possibility of falling upon similar misfortune (13). In Blood Relation...

Compare and contrast the rationalist and empiricist strategies( Essay

Compare and contrast the rationalist and empiricist strategies( Descartes vs. Locke) - Essay Example Even as this school of thought was popularized through Cartesian philosophy it has an extended lineage within philosophical schools of thought, dating from Greek antiquity to the modernist school exemplified by Immanuel Kant. It is not surprise then that there are a variety of competing perspectives on the issue, each of which can be situated along this philosophical continuum as they necessitate differing types of emphasis on the primacy of rational thought in the acquisition of knowledge. In terms of the Cartesian’ perspective, it was emphasized that only foundational truths could be understood through pure reason; different realities could only be grasped through scientific knowledge. The main crux of Descartes’ thought in the matter was that the physical world cannot completely be trusted to provide the thinker with a pure and unobstructed view of reality. In these regards, there is presented the famous deliberation on reality centered around dreams, as how is it po ssible for the individual to understand their existence is real as they could possibly be dreaming. For Descartes, thought and rational insight then becomes the basis for all reality. From the converse perspective, empirical knowledge constitutes the school of philosophical thought that argues the only knowledge that can be obtained is through experience.

Psychology in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Psychology in Education - Essay Example Curriculum should be designed in such a way that students could be developed morally, behaviorally, and socially without making compromises on the academic content. This is the only way confident and morally responsible students could be prepared in my instructional setting. As a teacher who is assigned to teach 9th to 12th graders in custody, I could adjust the curriculum content in such a way that it could then address and acknowledge the changing nature and desires of my students without favoring them completely. Wherever educational strategies fail, it happens mainly when the desires and ideas of the students are overlooked completely. To know my students’ interests, I would have their input in the curriculum development. First, I shall decide what topics to teach, then I shall discuss those topics with my students in the very first class, and encourage them to suggest alterations, modifications, and valuable insights so that the topics would occur and flow in a way that t hey find interest in. There would be certain topics that they would like to be taught first and others later. I would organize my chapters accordingly. I would also let them express how they would like their performance to be assessed. I would put a variety of assessment methods in front of them e.g. announced vs unannounced quizzes, oral vs written exams, individual assignments vs group assignments and would also tell them the pros and cons of each.

Quasi-Experimental Designs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Quasi-Experimental Designs - Essay Example S., (1992). Sex Differences in Performance on the Mathematics Section of the Scholastic Aptitude Test: A Bidirectional Validity Study. Harvard Educational Review. Vol. 62(3), pp. 323-337. Reason for choice: Studies like these are part of classic literature on abilities and on psychological testing. The study also provides support for the urban legend that boys (males) are better at mathematics as compared to girls (females). This study also provides a perfect example for understanding quasi-experimental designs, since the selection of subjects in each group can be randomised perfectly; but the actual manipulation of the Independent variable is impossible. Variables: The independent variable for this study is the sex of the participant, and the dependent variable is the score obtained by the participant on the mathematics section of the SAT. Alternate research design: The same study results would be more valuable if the effect of study background was removed. This can be done by using a measuring the extent to which the subject has studied mathematics or mathematics dependent subjects in the two years before giving the exam; and then removing the effect of this variable from the data by using an Analysis of Co-Variance.

Social Consequences of New Media

Social Consequences of New Media Identify the most consequential features of ‘new media’ and assess how and why sociological theory and concepts deal with these. Abstract This essay establishes the background of new media technologies within the context of their historical development. The argument is then addressed towards the largest social consequences tial outcomes of new technologies as through analysis of the augmentation and facilitation of social communities and online interest groupsthe key consequential developments of new media, culminating in the premise that online community augmentation is the most crucial in order to provide social structures for the existence and promotion of other new media consequences. This argument is then placed into a framework of related theoretical endeavour and elucidates salient arguments in order to establish the premise within contemporary academia. The essay closes with a summation of the discussion along with concluding comments. The term ‘new media’ has gained a great deal of currency over the past two decades. It is also worthy of note that the term has gained status as a collective, singular noun form as if it was in reference to a single, coherent entity. This practice has become increasingly common, not only in marketing circles and journalistic reportage but also in the world of academia. Whilst the term in itself is incredibly vague, the utterance of such increasingly implies solidarity of existence as a totally formed and fully achieved social and material practice. Whilst there is little truth in this premise, this nature of conduct continues, and in doing so undermines development of coherent debate. Throughout this paper, the term ‘new media’ will be applied to the technological practice, development and subsequent social construction of those technologies which have been borne of internet and digitally associated technologies. In addition to this, it must be pointed out that it would at best be truculent, and at worst benighted, to talk of the consequences of new media in terms of cause and effect; this does not do the subject justice nor does it recognise the transience of the situation. It is for these reasons that throughout the course of this critique the consequences of new media technologies will be catalogued in a historically linear form in order to demonstrate the manner in which such technologies lead to further technological developments, each built upon the innovation of the previous. This essay will address the inception of those technologies which have now come to be known as new media and establish them within a historical framework with particular e mphasis placed on the development of the World Wide Web. Scholarly endeavour on these matters is subsequently placed into context of existing examples of new media development, along with their societal consequences. These arguments are then consolidated with broader, underpinning theories which argue for the case of community augmentation as the primary consequence of new media technologies. The essay then closes with a summary of key points raised with according conclusions. Current developments in new media technologies can be traced back to the inception of internet technologies and the consequential developments which ensued. When John Licklider joined ARPA, Leonard Klienrock was already developing ideas for ‘packet sending’. This was a method of sending information in broken up pieces, or ‘packets’. The information would be reassembled at the other end. Because the files were broken up before sending, they would be more difficult to eavesdrop, therefore of great appeal to ARPA. In 1965 an experiment saw computers in Berkley and MIT linked over a low-speed dial-up telephone line, forming the first ever Wide Area Network (Sadar, 2000). ARPA scientists continued the development of networking protocols and in 1972 TCP/IP was born. This would allow different networks to communicate with each other. Now it was simply a matter of time and growth, as at this stage computers consisted of large mainframes that were not available to the majority of people. In 1982, whilst ARPANET was still the backbone of the system, they adopted TCP/IP. This is considered as the birth of the internet; an international network of computers all using the standard. Expansion of the system was also occurring due to advances in computer technology and in 1984 the number of online hosts was over 1000. Governments started using and promoting the system for educational purposes and by 1987 there were 10.000 hosts (over the following two years this number had swelled to 100,000) (Baym, 1998). The year 1991 saw the launch of the World Wide Web (WWW) which consisted of a network of searchable and retrievable sites that employ the use of Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). This protocol automatically searched for the site and retrieved it for automatic viewing. Tim Berners-Lee and other scientists had been developing ideas for making data easily retrievable since 1989 and several browser/editor programs were made shortly after. This formed the basis of what would become new media technology as it is now known (Baym, 1998).An important consequence of the proliferation of new media is the digital divide. In economic terms, the digital divide emphasises the gap between those with privilege and those without. Those without suffer a more limited access to the means of information distribution that new media has come to be synonymous with; internet access, email, smartphones, etc. The consequences of this are broad reaching since they can affect people not just on their individual access to digital information services but also by geographical location or by their access to social entities such as businesses, educational services and public services. This gap also exists between nation states and is known on an international scale as the global digital divide (Halford Savage, 2010). The historically recent rise in new media has also prompted an interest in the academic study of mobilities; an area of the social sciences which was largely disregarded until the phenomenon. The turn in attitude is due largely, if not wholly, to the ubiquity of locative media and mobile communications in increasingly novel forms (Urry, 2000). These new technologies are augmenting and supplementing the manner in which members of society communicate with one another, and indeed their locations, on the move. Such ICTs (Information and Communications Technologies) are increasing in ubiquity, as increasing numbers of people begin to carry smart technologies with them, and rising numbers of architectural structures and public borders are becoming embedded with responsive entities which can relay pertinent information. Transport structures, public service buildings, architecture of interest, etc. are becoming increasingly embedded with satellite connectivity, GPS, responsive software, sens ors and other interactive data transfer forms (Urry, 2004). It is uncontroversial to argue that the most important and far-reaching consequence of new media is the increased ability for social and community forming; the world has witnessed a massive rise in online groups and communities. For many people it is now possible to be part of multiple online groups simultaneously. Much of the general debate around the value of the virtual communitiesdebate which surrounds new media also highlights the increase in digital representation and through subcultures. From the early days of online chatrooms and social portals which existed entirely in textual form, the development into widespread social media has brought with it a sharp rise in both the globalisation of culture and digital representation of the self through online platforms. Debate on such representation has become which have developed from new media technologies has become polarised in academic debateia. On the one hand is the groupA strong argument in scholarly endeavour which argues maintains that the internet has created a new platform for with which to resurrect traditional notions of community (perceived as fading in ‘real life’) which could be perceived as diminishing in modern culture; this and is a positive step towards achieving a new global solidarity, particularly with the co ncurrent development of cultural globalisation. The opposition to this school of thought maintain that cyberspace detracts attention from the issues faced in ‘real life’ community and is therefore erodes it. This point of view is eloquently allegorised in the opening page of Jean Baudrillard’s Simulations (1983). Baudrillard paraphrases the Jorge Luis Borges tale of cartographers who create a map of the empire to such detail that it perfectly covers the land it represents. Whilst the map is celebrated the land underneath it declines into wasteland. This is only brought to the attention of the people when the map itself erodes, revealing an uninhabitable â€Å"desert of the real† (Baudrillard, 1983). It is uncontroversial to argue that the most important and far-reaching social consequence of new media is the increased ability for the formation of communities which were previously unavailable. These community groups are salient and consistent throughout the development of new media technology and additionally it is now possible for many to be part of multiple societal groups simultaneously. Such communities are so influential because they underpin and promulgate the existence of other key elements of new media technology development, such as social change, cultural globalisation, digital identity, the mobilisation of smart technologies, etc. Theorists Wellman and Gulia argue that the current debate on virtual communities is problematic for several reasons. They state that the polarisation of opinion makes the debate Manichean, and also that a sense of the history of community is absent. In addition to this, they contend that the debate on virtual communities is largely unscholarly and is parochial in the sense that it forces a divide between ‘real life’ communities and those online. They go on to say that the notion of a traditional community is nostalgic and saturated with myth (Wellman Gulia, 1999). Whilst Wellman Gulia make some fair points, certainly the polarisation of the online debate (and also the separation of online life and real-life in theory) the two extremes of opinion have produced a substantial amount of research on the matter. When defining community it is useful to look at the work of German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, who developed the terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Gemeinschaft (translated roughly as ‘community’) is described by Tonnies as traditional community, characterised by bonding through kinship, friendship, shared religious beliefs and community loyalty. Tonnies termed modern, capitalist societies as Gesellschaft (community, or association), where social interactions and relationships are much less personal, more calculated and contractual, where the society experiences increased isolation of individuals living within it (Tonnies, 1988). There is also important work regarding broader communities, in particular Benedict Anderson’s theories concerning nations, or as he terms â€Å"imagined communities† (Anderson, 1983). Since the members of a nation cannot possibly interact with (or have knowledge of) everyone within that nation, certain symbolic resources and rituals (or as Anderson refers â€Å"invented traditions†) are utilised to coalesce people and create a sense of shared identity (flags, national anthems, etc.). Anderson maintains that these types of communities depend on their members believing in them, and are maintained through the shared practice of cultural customs and devices (Anderson, 1983). These Current definitions of digital community, whilst useful, suffer the same drawbacks as most in that they can be taken to extremes within their own boundaries, and do little to draw the line as to how far to go. A useful analogy is presented by David Bell (2001), who asks â€Å"I drive a car. To what extent could I argue that I belong to a ‘community of car drivers’?†. Bell goes on to explain that his car driving community satisfies all aspects of popular community definitions. Identity as a ‘car driver’ is institutionalised by a driving licence, which not only provides certain privileges but also acts as a proof of identity in a broader sense, and this is a commonality with other car drivers. Bell continues to describe a ‘set of knowledges’ which all car drivers possess (of driving, of the road, etc.), some of them formalised and some tacit. Whilst the Highway Code formalises one strand of such knowledge there also exists a tacit und erstanding in the form of driving etiquette and the like. The final point Bell makes is that of facilitation. The car also facilitates his membership of off-road communities (Bell, 2001). Whether or not Bell’s example does satisfy a definition of community is still debatable, but it does raise some important points when trying to define community, especially when comparing or contrasting to those which exist online. The same terms of Bell’s analogy could just as simply be applied to MySpace or EBay, both of which have had a far-reaching and consequential impact on capitalist societies; MySpace in many ways became the prototype of digital self-representation, with its ability for photographic and thematic customisation, coupled with a platform for creative endeavour or the broadcast of opinions. This paved the way for a broad range of online social media platforms which developed or augmented the original MySpace model. Conversely, EBay provided a platform for commerce which laid down an archetype for online trading. The eBay model for the first time allowed people to generate income through private auctioning on a global scale, in many cases providing en tire businesses to operate solely within the confines of the site. Regardless of their achieved scope and proliferation of use, but would the question remainsthat mean regarding whether or not that these ‘created communities’ satisfy a Gemeinschaft definition of community, and even if they did this would not necessarily make them communities in the nostalgic sense. , would that make them a community in the nostalgic sense? Bell explores this matter by offering a distinction between the terms (sometimes used synonymously by critical theorists) ‘community’ and ‘sub-culture’: Clearly there’s a slippage between the two words, both taken to mean the same thing – Baym’s own work has used both to describe the same group of online soap fans, for example. But I think that the two words have very different connotations, so I started to wonder where the boundary between terms like these lies. (Bell, 2001:101) In this statement Bell makes a valid point. In the labelling of factions and groups as ‘communities’ more often than not the term either becomes encapsulate, including a whole host of assemblies which are perhaps better described in another category, or becomes exclusive to the point of rejection of all those groups which fail to satisfy the nostalgic and seemingly outdated notion of traditional community. With these comments in mind it seemsIt is important to establish a boundary by which to sector those groups which, although they may satisfy certain aspects of community ‘new technology’ consequences, are not engaged in sufficient humanistic interaction to be defined as such. This does not present an immediate problem as there are many online groups which fit this description and do not label themselves as communities, but remain consequential of new media. However, the emphasis on human interaction seems to be the key to which distinctions can be drawn between online organisations and actual communities. One notorious commentator on the subject, Howard Rheingold, states just that: Virtual communities are social aggregations that emerge from the net when enough people carry on†¦public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships in cyberspace. (Rheingold, 1993:12) Since traditional community is no longer possible in its pure form, due predominantly to capitalism and globalisation, people have searched out the areas of their community which they now lack. Humans , being social animals (and at best, survivalists) have utilised the internetnew media in tandem with the development of technology to maintain and keep control of the things which they inherently hold dear. In this case, the elements of community which contemporary society have consequentially eroded with new media are also supported by new media. These consequences are now are now to be found online in forums, groups and interactive spaces. New media technology The internet does not house communities, but symbiotically supports those areas of community which no longer exist outside of the webof such developments, and arguably, due to such developments. Online platforms such as MySpace or Facebook provide many services, but do not create a social network for its users. Rather, new medi a they allow users to supplement their existing social networks with online support. Furthermore online Interactions can take place which will allow families who are miles apart to keep in touch in ways that have previously been impossible, thus they are solving previous difficulties pertaining to traditional community, predominantly that of distance and (the resulting factor of) time, and strengthening these communities in ways that previously could not be achieved. It is now possible for community to become reinforced by new media technologies in ways that were previously impossible, thus strengthening the weak elements that existed in the Gemeinschaft-style structure. Utilising technology, traditional communities are able to function over distance in real-time, in cybernetic unison. References Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism, London: Verso. Baudrillard, J. (1983) Simulations, USA: Semiotext[e] Baym, N. (1998) ‘The emergence of an on-line community’, Cited in S.Jones (ed.) Cybersociety 2.0: revisiting computer-mediated communication and community, London: Sage. Bell, D. (2001) An Introduction to Cybercultures, London: Routledge. Halford, S. Savage, M. (2010) ‘Reconceptualizing Digital Social Inequality’, Information, Communication and Society 13 (7): 937-55. [online] Available from: www.cresc.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Paper No 86_0.pdf (Accessed 18/11/20130). Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Addison-Wesley. Sardar, Z. (2000) ‘Alt.civilizations.faq: cyberspace as the darker side of the West’, Cited in Bell, D. and Kennedy, B. M. (eds.) The Cybercultures Reader, London: Routledge. Tonnies, F. (1988) Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). (C. P. Loomis, Trans.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Original work published in 1887). John Urry (2000) Sociology Beyond Societies London: Routledge. John Urry (2004) ‘Mobile Sociology’, ch.13 in Frank Webster (ed.), The Information Society Reader London: Routledge. Wellman, B. Gulia, M. (1999) ‘Virtual communities as communities: net surfers don’t ride alone’, Cited in Smith, M. Lollock, P. (eds.) Communities in Cyberspace, London: Routledge. Bibliography Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought, Basingstoke: Palgrave. Castells, M. (2001) The Internet Galaxy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Craib, I. (1997) Classical Social Theory: An Introduction to the Thought of Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Simmel. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Flew, F. (2002) New Media. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Lievrouw, L.A. (2006) ‘New Media Design Development: Diffusion of Innovations Vs. Social Shaping of Technology’, in Lievrouw, L. Livingstone, S. Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Social Consequences, London: Sage Lister, M., Dovey, J., Giddings, S., Grant, I., Kieron, K. (2003) New Media: A Critical Introduction. London: Routledge. May, C. (2002) The Information Society: a sceptical view. Cambridge: Polity. Sayer, D. (1991) Capitalism Modernity: An Excursus on Marx Weber. London: Routledge. Webster, F. (2006) Theories of the Information Society, 3rd edition. Routledge. Woolgar, S. (ed.) (2002) Virtual Society?Oxford: Oxford University Press.References Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism, London: Verso. Baudrillard, J. (1983) Simulations, USA: Semiotext[e] Baym, N. (1998) ‘The emergence of an on-line community’, Cited in S.Jones (ed.) Cybersociety 2.0: revisiting computer-mediated communication and community, London: Sage. Bell, D. (2001) An Introduction to Cybercultures, London: Routledge. Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Addison-Wesley. Sardar, Z. (2000) ‘Alt.civilizations.faq: cyberspace as the darker side of the West’, Cited in Bell, D. and Kennedy, B. M. (eds.) The Cybercultures Reader, London: Routledge. Tonnies, F. (1988) Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). (C. P. Loomis, Trans.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Original work published in 1887). Wellman, B. Gulia, M. (1999) ‘Virtual communities as communities: net surfers don’t ride alone’, Cited in Smith, M. Lollock, P. (eds.) Communities in Cyberspace, London: Routledge. Bibliography Castells, M. (2001) The Internet Galaxy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Webster, F. (2006) Theories of the Information Society, 3rd edition. Routledge. Lievrouw, L.A. (2006) ‘New Media Design Development: Diffusion of Innovations Vs. Social Shaping of Technology’, in Lievrouw, L. Livingstone, S. Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Social Consequences, London: Sage May, C. (2002) The Information Society: a sceptical view. Cambridge: Polity. Flew, F. (2002) New Media. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Craib, I. (1997) Classical Social Theory: An Introduction to the Thought of Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Simmel. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sayer, D. (1991) Capitalism Modernity: An Excursus on Marx Weber. London: Routledge. Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought, Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Yemen Essay -- Yemens Government, Politics

In spite of Yemen’s desire to be a world player, internal strife and an upswing of insurgent activity is pulling the country apart. Yemen occupies the southernmost region of the Arabian Peninsula, sharing boarders with Saudi Arabia and Oman. Yemen enjoys many miles of coastline. The port of Aden is so located as to be the shipping center for the country. This paper’s purpose is to provide information and intelligence assessment for the following areas; history, government, foreign relations, demographics, economy, military and the current threat posed by Yemen. An influx of militants from Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Afghanistan has raised concerns that Yemen has become an Al-Qaede haven (2). This concern contrasts with the government’s efforts in counterterrorism and the goal of being a legitimate world player. I assess that Yemen has seen what seems to be a typical inception and growth for countries of the Middle-East. Prior to the region being named â€Å"Yemen†, it fell under the control of several fleeting kingdoms between the 12th century BC and the 6th century AD. Beginning in the 7th century AD, Islamic caliphs began to exercise control within the region later known as Yemen (1). The Ottoman Turks, as they gained control of the Middle East occupied all of Northern Yemen until there withdraw in 1918 (1). As World War II draws to an end, Yemen joins the Arab League in 1945 and the U.N. in 1947 (1). However, at this point Yemen is still divided in to two states, the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). It took years for the two factions to agree on unification and another decade for a constitution to be agreed to. On 22 May 1990 The Republic of Yemen was declared. I assess that Yemen’s... ...le-East countries, is standing in between the government’s progressive policies and the extremist views of the Muslim radicals. And in a time where having the wrong ally can bring the wrath of the radicals down on you, Yemen is looking in all directions for help. The civil discontent, a weak economy and a growing number of terrorist calling Yemen home put Yemen in a precarious position. The aid they receive from the U.S. helps the government and people while at the same time allowing the insurgents to point fingers at week leadership. As for the U.S., we must proceed cautiously. A true ally in region is invaluable. But a weak ally could draw the U.S. into further conflicts or stretch the amount of aid we send to a region. In my opinion it is better to keep Yemen close. Helping Yemen along allows us to keep our finger a little more closely on the pulse of our foes.

Human Capital Management Essay

InterClean has merged with EnviroTech in order to evolve with the industry and providing not only cleaning products, but also solutions and services. This merger is an opportunity for InterClean to reposition itself and expand their understanding of the marketplace, customer’s needs, and to break through into new markets. The company’s goal is to provide a full spectrum of cleaning services and solutions that will become our major avenue for sales. In order to do that the focus needs to be on attracting, retaining and motivating the best talent, which can be done by establishing a superior training plan and offering competitive benefits and compensation packages. Pay System In order to control costs InterClean’s pay system should channel more dollars into incentive awards rather than fixed salaries. â€Å"Such variable-pay systems almost guarantee cost control† (Cascio, p. 417). The pay system for employees will be a pay-for-performance theme with bonus payouts. Not only will this pay plan keep costs lower than other pay plans, but it will also help to encourage healthy competition among employees and increase productivity. â€Å"Almost a third of American workers whose pay is not tied in some way to their performance believe they would be more productive if they had a greater interest in the companies that employ them through benefits such as profit sharing, according to a survey from temporary staffing and outsourcing firm Kelly Services. (Miller, p. 1)† Three Components of the Reward Package Compensation packages include both financial and nonfinancial rewards. The base pay with the bonus payouts would cover the financial rewards. â€Å"Nonfinancial rewards include everything in a work environment that enhances a worker’s sense of self-respect and esteem by others (e.g., work environments that are physically, socially, and mentally healthy; opportunities for training and personal development; effective supervision; recognition) (Cascio, p. 418).† The nonfinancial benefits that will be offered to motivate employees to reach peak performance are a wellness plan (including gym membership), on-site dependent care and flex time. A wellness plan plays an important role into keeping health care expenses down and decreasing the amount of sick leave taken. â€Å"Studies have found that employees that take care of themselves live longer and don’t become sick as easily as their un-fit co-workers. When a company has a healthy staff, they are more productive and their appearance presents a positive image to the consumers (Unknown, p. 1).† InterClean can encourage employees to use gym membership by allowing extra time during their lunch hour for employees to exercise and have enough time to shower, change and get back to the office. Dependent care on-site will decrease employee absences and increase productivity and morale. â€Å"Data from national random sample indicate that providing family benefits promotes a dedicated, loyal workforce among people who benefit directly from the policies, as well as those who do not (Cascio, p. 381).† When a company had loyal and dedicated employees they will have a lower turnover rate, which in the long run will save large amounts of money. â€Å"A study done by Cynthia Ransom and Sandra Burud at the Union Bank in Pasadena, California showed that the bank saved between $138,000 and $232,000 annually in operations due to a reduction in turnover and absenteeism from their on-site daycare program. (Murdock, p. 1)† Flex time References: 1. Unknown, 2010. Gym Memberships as Part of Your Wellness Program. http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/health/gym_memberships_as_part_of_your_wellness_program_028931.html 2. Murdock, K. Februrary 13, 2006. On-Site Childcare. http://www.allbusiness.com/specialty-businesses/women-owned-businesses/387737

Theodore Roosevelt Essays - Sons Of The American Revolution

Theodore Roosevelt Essays - Sons Of The American Revolution Theodore Roosevelt Outline Thesis: Theodore Roosevelt's political presence altered the course of the United States, transforming it into a superpower fully ready to handle the challenges of any opposition, and changed the role of the president and executive branch of US government, making it a force to be reckoned with. I. Introduction II. Before Roosevelt A. Post-Reconstructionist Views B. The Industrial Revolution C. The Gilded Age 1. Railroads 2. Robber Barons 3. Immigration 4. Standard Question D. McKinley III. The Roosevelt Era A. Early Life 1. Influence of Parents 2. Invalidism B. Early Political Career 1. Ending Corruption/Enforcing Laws 2. Political Bosses 3. Governorship C. Presidential Era 1. Vice Presidential Race 2. Manipulation of the Press 3. Federal Regulatory Laws 4. Foreign Policy 5. Strong Executive Branch D. Post-Presidential Era 1. Taft 2. The Progressive Party IV. Post-Rooseveltian America A. Wilson 1. Continued Progressivism 2. World War I a. Inactivity b. Activity B. Life After Wilson 1. Implementation of Roosevelt's Reforms 2. Roosevelt's Influence Today 3. Influences in the Future V. Conclusion Theodore Roosevelt: The Founder of an Era The turn of the century has always been a big deal for modern civilizations. One hundred years of life is quite large compared with the average 70 or so given to most. Because of that, people tend to look in trends of decades, rather than centuries or millennia. When it does come time for a new century, when that second digit rotates, as it does so seldom, people tend to look for change. Events tend to fall before or after the century, not on top of it, and United States history, particularly, has had a tendency for sudden change at the century marks. Columbus' accidental discovery of the West Indies in 1492 brought on the exploration age in the 1500s. Jamestown colony, founded in 1607, was England's first foothold on the New World. A massive population surge, brought on in part by the import of Africans, marks entry into the 18th century. Thomas Jefferson's presidency, beginning in 1800, changed the face of American politics. 1900 was a ripe year for change, but needed someone to help the change arrive. That someone was Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt's political presence altered the course of the United States, transforming it into a superpower fully ready to handle the challenges of any opposition, and changed the role of the president and executive branch of US government, making it a force with which to be reckoned. As the first president with progressive views, Roosevelt enacted the first regulatory laws and prosecuted big businesses who had been violating them and others for years. Roosevelt also initiated the United States' active interests in other countries, and began to spread the benefits of democracy throughout the world. Before Roosevelt, the United States was an inward-looking country, largely xenophobic to the calls of the rest of the world, and chiefly concerned with bettering itself. As one critic put it, "Roosevelt was the first modern president"(Knoll). After Roosevelt, the United States would remain a superpower, chiefly interested in all the world's affairs for at least a century (Barck 1). It would be foolish to assume that Roosevelt was a fantastically powerful individual who was able to change the course of the United States as easily as Superman might change the course of a river. It would be more accurate to say Roosevelt was the right person in the right place at the right time. It is necessary, though, to show how the United States was progressing, and how Roosevelt's presence merely helped to catalyze the progression. It has been said that when John Wilkes Booth murdered Abraham Lincoln, he "extinguished the light of the republic" (Cashman 1). While this is a small hyperbole, it serves as an example of the general mood that pervaded the period from 1865 to 1901. The early dominating factor was, of course, Reconstruction. Reconstruction was a dirty game, and nobody liked it. Johnson fought with congress and the end result proved very little had changed. The South was still largely agrarian, and the North was commercial. Most importantly, the Southerners and the Northerners still felt they had as little to do with each other as a fish does with a bicycle. To the young "Teedie" Roosevelt, this must have made itself apparent. He was born in a mixed household, where "Theodore Roosevelt (Sr.) was as profoundly...for the North as Martha Roosevelt was for the south" (Hagedorn 10). The fact that the family was able to live, from all accounts, very harmoniously, is

Stability and Recovery in Weimar Germany 1925-9 essays

Stability and Recovery in Weimar Germany 1925-9 essays Explain the degree to which the years 1925-9 were a time of economic and political stability for the Weimar Republic The Weimar Republic was set up in Germany at the end of the First World War. It was a dramatic transformation from the highly undemocratic, authoritarian Kaiser Reich of the war, and pre war years. It was made up of an extremely democratic voting system, universal suffrage for the over 21s, and had a very proportionately representative Reichstag. With hindsight, we know that the system collapsed and gave way to Hitlers dictatorship in 1933. But it also inherited a broken, divided and demoralised Germany after WWI, and seemed to, at least partially, restore it to success. It is therefore arguable how weak or stable Weimar was. At the end of the Great War, Germany had lost much territory; it had lost 13% of its productivity, 24% of its coal, and 74% of its iron ore. It was paying 6.6 billion in reparations under the Treaty of Versailles. On top of this, Germany had 600,000 war widows and 1.2 million orphans, the government were spending 1/3 of its disposable funds on pensions. The hyperinflation of 1923and the subsequent re-establishment of the currency had brought great misery amongst most Germans, especially the middle classes who had lost their entire life savings. Recalling the economic mess Germany was in when Weimar was established, it seems a phenomenal regeneration had occurred. Helped by the Dawes Plan of 1924 - affordable reparations instalments and foreign investment Germany started to become more economically stable. Unemployment fell rapidly, and there were good conditions for the poor; a generous unemployment benefit and a good wage rise for workers. German industry became more and more profitable. In fact, by 1927 the Gross National Productivity of Germany exceeded that of the whole German empire in 1913. AJ Nicholls argues that the damaging effects of the Treaty o...

Technologies Affect on Communication Research Paper

Technologies Affect on Communication - Research Paper Example To begin with, it is important to note that traditional modes of communication such as telegrams, letters, use of human messengers to deliver messages, have continued to lose popularity save for special circumstances, even though they are still being used in societies that have not invested on modern infrastructure (Bucy, 2004). Cell phones for example have become a major necessity in the human life due to their mobility and portability, which in turn creates convenience. This is as opposed to the wired communication devices such as the landline telephones, which are static in nature by the virtue of the fact that a person waiting for an important call has to remain within an audible range, so as to receive a call once the telephone rings (Atkin, 2006). In this context, mobile technology has enabled people to call and reach their intended recipients from any location and during any time of the day, without having to interfere with their day to day activities. For example, a person wo rking in the field can reach his or her spouse by calling them on their mobile, may be to check on how they are doing or to pass an important message. They make it possible for parents to enquire and confirm on the safety of their children especially in these uncertain times when children are vulnerable to numerous physical and psychological threats in the society. By doing so, one can perform his or her duties without distraction, knowing well that their families are safe wherever they are. Cell phones have also enabled users to deliver themselves from tough predicaments such as mechanical breakdowns on their vehicles while on transit (Atkin, 2006). One only needs to call a towing company or an expert to come to their aid. Without these gadgets, such an occurrence would necessitate walking long distances in search of help, which could also be dangerous especially if it occurs late in the night when there are few motorists on the roads and when the chances of being attacked by armed gangsters are real. It is also observable that most of the mobile handsets in the current markets have built-in cameras, which enable users to record videos and take pictures of their surroundings. In light of this, a person can use his or her phone to record evidence or an occurrence such as an accident or criminals in action, which can later be used by insurance companies or security personnel in building their cases. This is an important aspect since it is not always possible to have security and traffic officers in each and every corner of the nation. Witnesses to such occurrences would be in an excellent position to explain the details to the officers, after they use the same cell phones to call the authorities as well as ambulances depending on the situation at hand (Atkin 2006). However, it is not always easy to communicate vocally through cell phones especially if a person is in a noisy environment. In addition, some details in a phone conversation may be delicate in nature such that they require a lot of privacy. For example, personal information such as bank and other financial details, access codes to important online accounts or even delicate family issues are not supposed to access the public. To counter this, mobile phones are equipped with short messaging systems, which enable one to send information in form of text (Bucy, 2004). The recipient needs only to access the message, read it and if it is too confidential, he has the option

Summary and Impact Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Summary and Impact - Essay Example Scientists demonstrated that start time of treatment affects the response of B cells to the virus. Moreover, they have shown that the response of the same B cells to the HIV differs from that to other pathogens such as tetanus or influenza. In summary, these studies provide evidence of the fact that earlier treatment of HIV is better for the health of infected people. HIV infection can affect anyone of us. The biggest problem for HIV-infected people is the fact that this infection is extremely difficult to treat and complete cure is not possible at all. Therefore, knowledge of basic features of HIV infection greatly interested me. Especially useful information is the fact that early treatment improves resistance and is more useful for our body. This fact raises questions about the periodic inspection your body for HIV infection, because in case of early identification, quality of treatment will be much higher. Thus, the annual check for infection will increase the quality of further treatment because of early detection of infection. So we should not give problems the chance to become a significant and solve it at the

Chemical Companies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chemical Companies - Research Paper Example Expenditure in research and development by firms globally summed up to 344bn pounds among the countries with heavy investments in this sector such as Japan, Us, Germany, France Switzerland and the UK. These countries through the respective corporations contribute to a tune of over 82% of the spending in R & D. among the largest sectors with huge spending in R & D globally are the pharmaceuticals company, electric and electrical equipment as well as chemical companies as indicated by a registered growth in their spending on the same. (Shield, Beth, and Miriam pg. 45). On the other hand capital expenditure by firms has never seemed so controversial nor important. Together with R & D, capital spending is the long-term lifeblood of many corporations as it determines the ability of most corporations to generate cash flows enough to service their debts. It is quite hard to determine the capital expenditure of most companies if not all as this is the aspect that results into a variety of ri sks in the business in form of cash flows, competitive position, as well as the ability to price. According from evidence shown by statistics, the top capital spenders also come from the chemical and energy industry and they include corporations from china, south America like Brazil and a great deal of corporations from Europe (Frith pg. 144-8). In Europe the chemicals, plastic and rubber sectors forms a bigger part of the industrial sector generating over 3.2million employment opportunities yearly. It is in record that since the year 2000, the chemical sector in Europe has dominated the manufacturing sector by over 2/3. Among the top 50 ranked corporations is the German giant chemical producer BASF with a sale of $79.8 million, which is even an improvement from the previous period’s sales. The company through its management continues to even have more prospects of growth through increased production despite the looming economic tenacity (Festel pg. 88). A combination of the sales figures for the 50 surveyed firms shows a total of $961.8 billion. This figure indicates how much the chemical industry controls the transactions that take place worldwide. The domination of firms in the chemical industry is the same in the developed countries as it is in the developing countries. Chinese giant Sinopec recorded revenue of $56.4 billion and is ranked at number three worldwide and came closer to even being the number two chemical producer in the whole world (Kain pg. 167-9). Among the top three in terms of capital expenditure as well as research and development is the Dow Chemical at position two in the whole world. Sabic also follows in the list in that order with revenue of $42.2 billion and takes position 5 among the chemical producers. It is worth recording that these firms have shown tremendous progress through dynamic performance in their previous past operations. They have come a long way in which SABIC was all the way number 13 in the whole world to beco me number five. At the same time, SINOPEC was all the way number 14 and look at its ranking today (Shield, Beth and Miriam pg. 92-4). As compared to the year before,

How Technology Effects Our Everyday Lives Essay Example for Free

How Technology Effects Our Everyday Lives Essay Technology in Society Today Today in society technology is used in every individual’s life. Society reacts to technology in many different ways, and technology plays the major role in everyone’s everyday life. One example is that there is a new iPhone coming out, the IPhone 5s and IPhone 5c. Individuals are waiting for this phone to come out, just for the upgrades that are not drastic from the iPhone 4. People use technology in their everyday life- cell phones for everything (calculators, calendars, alarm clocks, mail/texts) and I even use my cell phone to complete school work, like this discussion board in our class. Society depends on technology for new information, television, and even farmers use technology in their new tractors to keep up to date with prices of wheat and even may set a tractor to plant or spray in a certain area. Most individuals, including me, depend on technology to get through their everyday life. Today in society technology is used in every individual’s life. Society reacts to technology in many different ways, and technology plays the major role in everyone’s everyday life. One example is that there is a new iPhone coming out, the IPhone 5s and IPhone 5c. Individuals are waiting for this phone to come out, just for the upgrades that are not drastic from the iPhone 4. People use technology in their everyday life- cell phones for everything (calculators, calendars, alarm clocks, mail/texts) and I even use my cell phone to complete school work, like this discussion board in our class. Society depends on technology for new information, television, and even farmers use technology in their new tractors to keep up to date with prices of wheat and even may set a tractor to plant or spray in a certain area. Most individuals, including me, depend on technology to get through their everyday life. Today in society technology is used in every individual’s life. Society reacts to technology in many different ways, and technology plays the major role in everyone’s everyday life. One example is that there is a new iPhone coming out, the IPhone 5s and IPhone 5c. Individuals are waiting for this phone to come out, just for the upgrades that are not drastic from the iPhone 4. People use technology in their everyday life- cell phones for everything (calculators, calendars, alarm clocks, mail/texts) and I even use my cell phone to complete school work, like this discussion board in our class. Society depends on technology for new information, television, and even farm ers use  technology in their new tractors to keep up to date with prices of wheat and even may set a tractor to plant or spray in a certain area. Most individuals, including me, depend on technology to get through their everyday life. Today in society technology is used in every individual’s life. Society reacts to technology in many different ways, and technology plays the major role in everyone’s everyday life. One example is that there is a new iPhone coming out, the IPhone 5s and IPhone 5c. Individuals are waiting for this phone to come out, just for the upgrades that are not drastic from the iPhone 4. People use technology in their everyday life- cell phones for everything (calculators, calendars, alarm clocks, mail/texts) and I even use my cell phone to complete school work, like this discussion board in our class. Society depends on technology for new information, television, and even farmers use technology in their new tractors to keep up to date with prices of wheat and even may set a tractor to plant or spray in a certain area. Most individuals, including me, depend on technology to get through their everyday life.

Sub Saharan Africa Ssa Politics Essay

Sub Saharan Africa Ssa Politics Essay Sub-Saharan Africa is the largest current aid recipient region of the world since 2001 having overtaken Asia as the largest aid-receiving region. Since more than five decades ago, over $1 trillion has been disbursed to the region to spur development and integration into the global economy (Moyo, 2009; Dessai and Porter, 2009; and Handley et al. 2009). Despite the huge amount of aid flow to sub-Saharan Africa, widespread poverty, chronic hunger and prevalence of life-threatening diseases are unprecedented in the region. Institutions and scholars are now referring to food-malnutrition-hunger problems in the developing countries as the third crises' (Chibba, 2011:76-77).There are also increasing dependency on aid, foreign technologies, institutions and value system, (Todaro and Smith, 2011; Collier, 2008; Kelsall, 2008). The World Bank (2008) on the monitoring of the progress of MDG reported that the first goal of halving absolute poverty has been disappointing in sub-Saharan Africa. The failure of aid has generated debate among scholars and policy practitioner alike. This is because of the failure of fifty years of challenging aid interventions. Poor political leadership and weak state institution of recipient countries, and the agenda and conditionality imposed by donor countries and governments are attributed for the failure of aid politics and economics of aid. However, the availability of abundant natural resources in Nigeria and other sub-Saharan African countries have not affected their fortune so-called resource curse (Ushie, 2012:1; TI, 2012; Handley et al 2009). The aid-growth debate, multilateral and bilateral institutions and prominent scholars like Jeffrey Sachs and Arndt et al. in Chibba (2011) support the view that aid has a key role to play in achieving poverty reduction and development. There are increasing demand for focussed aid to developing countries, especially small states, low-income countries and post-conflict states (Chibba 2011, Paulo and Reisen, 2010). Critics of Sachs work on aids role in development such as William Easterly (2006), Dambisa Moyo (2009) among others argued that poverty could be solved more by income redistribution than by growth and that aid is destructive to the economy of developing countries. However, the most important thing is finding workable and real-world solutions to address both poverty and development challenges. The role of institutional quality of a country is more significant and not closely related to the volume of development assistance to the country. It is also more important than the geographical location and integration of the country into world trade (Booth, 2011). He said this could be an argument for lack of strong positive link between aid and development outcome in sub-Saharan Africa. Kofi Annan in UNDP 2006 noted that governance issues remain crucial elements of all strategies towards poverty eradication and human development governance matters for development. Institutions, rules and political processes have major roles to play in whether children have access to quality education, whether people have access to basic things of life, and whether there is development or retrogression. Promoting human development is beyond overcoming economic, social and technological challenges: it includes political and institutional challenges, which causes poverty and insulation to developmen t (UNDP, 2002; Abdellatif, 2003). The governance crisis in sub-Saharan Africa is obvious in prevalent corruption, public services that are inefficient and inability of citizens to exercise their basic rights to choose their leaders court without justice, public officials demanding bribe and hospital without doctors and drugs. Good governance is crucial in eradicating poverty and promotes development through effective institutions and rules. These can be achieved through accountability, transparency, empowerment, participation and rule of law. Failures of social policies often occur because the beneficiaries lack political power and adequate representation in the decisions that affects their lives. Developing countries will promote human development for all with governance systems that are fully accountable to the citizens. People can be better off when they can participate in the debates and decisions that affect their lives (UNDP 2002). For aid to achieve its aims, the people that aid target must be empowered. Aung San Suu Kyi cited by UNDP (2002:52) argued, Development as growth, advancement and the realisation of potential depends on available resources and no resources are more effective than people being empowered are. Governance for human developments must protect human rights; promote wider participation of the people in the institutions and rules that affects their lives. It is not just about efficient, equitable economic and social outcomes, but must embrace fair process. Succinctly, it must be democratic in substance and in form by the people and for the people (p, 52). Todaro and Smith (2011) noted that development needs improved functioning of the public, private and citizens sector. Each of these actors has their weaknesses accountability. These weaknesses must be addressed to achieve balanced, shared and sustainable development. Civil society organisations have the capacity to reduce accountability gap in global governance. Scholars and policy-makers have come to accept the fact that active involvement of civil society organisations in governance will provide solution to accountability deficit in global governance (Scholte, 2011). Civil society should be a major player to achieve that goals by mobilising communities, delivering services and shaping policies (Ibrahim and Hulme, 2010; Bank and Hulme 2012; and Collins 2012). To critics, civil society might aggravate the problem because they themselves are poorly accountable to their constituency even if they have one (Scholte 2011; Steffeks et al, 2008, Kaldor 2002). The recent studies and international commitments reiterate the necessity of increasing research on poverty eradication and achieving sustainable development. Official monitoring of the impact of Paris Declaration where developed and developing countries make commitment to make aid effective by 2011 showed that only one of the thirteen targets has been met(OECD, 2011). Making aid effective and achieve its goal remains a crucial goal of development. Democratic governance is the answer good governance or good enough governance is democratic governance from human development perspective (UNDP 2002; Grindle, 2007). 1.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE This research intends to study how to overcome constraints to poverty reduction and achieving sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa. The research intends to answer these questions: What are the obstacles to poverty reduction and development in sub-Saharan Africa? What are the role of NGOs and civil society in promoting democracy in global and national governance institutions? What are the roles of civil society and NGOs in shaping governance policies and as alternative provider of social services? 1.2 METHODOLOGY There is an extensive literature on the role of state and non-state actors in governance of aid and capacities of different actors in governance institution towards poverty eradication and achieving human development in developing countries. This research will provide answers to the above questions by reviewing literature as a secondary data source. This method is selected considering the timescale of the study. It is possible to carry out this type of research by evaluation of secondary data source in assessing the core issues and approaches in providing solution to the research questions. This allows the critical appraisal of different literature source. Ethically, there is no research participant, hence no implication on any. This research is limited to the review of relevant literature on role of CSOs in poverty reduction, development and aid in developing countries and no field research This research work is structured in five chapters. The first chapter contains introduction of the issues in aid governance, the rationality for this research and research objectives methodology. Second chapter captures the rationality for aid in the development of sub-Saharan Africa. Its shed light on the challenges facing sub- Saharan Africa, and why aid has not been effective in reducing extreme poverty and promote human development. The concluding part of the chapter discusses global governance challenges and previous roles of NGOs and civil society in global governance and development. The third chapter discuss the centrality of democracy in governance and achieving sustainable human development. The focus of chapter four is the roles of NGOs and civil society in promoting democracy and addressing economic and development policy challenges. The fifth chapter is the conclusion of this research CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. RATIONALE BEHIND AID, AID DEBATE AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Attainment of development by any nation depends on combination of factors. These include the countrys resources endowment and population; its governments policies and objectives; the availability of external capital and technology international flow of financial resources; and the international trade environment (Todaro and Smith, 2011). External capital comes in three main forms. The first of these involves private foreign direct and portfolio investment by large transnational corporations and purchase of bonds, stocks and notes in the developing countries credit and equity markets by private institutions and individuals. The second involves remittances of earnings by international migrants; and the third involves public and private development assistance foreign aid. In the case of sub-Saharan Africa, there are factors that make it unattractive for private foreign direct and portfolio investment. Political instability and incessant military take-over; economic factors and poor bu siness environment; geographical factors majority of the countries in the region are landlocked nations; and insecurity of life and property and poor infrastructure makes it unattractive as a place for foreign investment (Sachs, 2005:63). In addition, remittances of earnings by international migrants are small. According to United Nation report cited by Todaro and Smith (2011), only Nigeria and Egypt have remittance of 4.7 and 5.8 percent of their GDP. The above situation makes the role of aid in the development of sub-Saharan Africa significant. Aid aims to fill the gap limiting development by supplementing savings to boost investment for improving productive capacity and needed infrastructures that facilitate development (Burnell, 2008; TI, 2011 and Todaro and Smith, 2011:702). The argument is that developing countries lacks adequate domestic savings required for investment opportunities. Coupled with this, African countries have low foreign-exchange earnings to finance imports. Lack of physical and human capital to attract private investment does not also help matter. Despite the increasing flow of aid, government policies and objectives are militating against its effectiveness. Defining foreign aid is conceptually problematic. To Dambisa Moyo (2009), aid is simply the sum total of both concessional loan and grants. Concessional loans are funds to be repaid, but with a more favourable repayment conditions to the borrower than what can be obtained through standard financial markets. It is sometimes at the expense of the lending countries. Grants are money given for nothing in return. She mentioned three types of aid. The first is humanitarian aid. That is, aid in response to catastrophe and calamities. The second is charity-based aid. These are aid disbursed by charitable organisations (NGOs and other voluntary sectors) to institutions or people on ground (p7). The third form of aid is systemic aid. This is aid payments made directly to governments which could be either through government-to- government transfer( bilateral aid) or transfer through institution such as World Bank(multilateral aid). The widely used concept of aid is the combination of all official grants and concessional loans. It may be in kind or currency. Peter Burnell(2008), viewed aid as including transfer of finance, commodities and other goods, technical cooperation and debt relief and grants is the common form of bilateral aid to least developed countries because of their inability in the past to service concessional loans acquired,(p.503). The intention is transfer of resources from developed countries to developing countries to reduce poverty and facilitate development the common target of aid now (Todaro and Smith, 2011; TI 2011). The focus of aid on the human development, poverty reduction and good governance is a recent development in aid governance. The reason for the new focus of aid is the increasing high profile of other non-state actors in governance, particularly, civil society organisations (TI, 2011, UNDP 2007). This weakened the monopoly of the state in promoting development and the role o f these non-state actors are increasing as the power of the state declines and global economic activities intensifies (Dessai and Porter, 2008: 499). They defined the state as the network of government, quasi-government and non-governmental institutions (traditional institutions) that coordinates, regulates and monitors economic and social activities (p. 499). The US Marshall Plan (1948-51) of post-war reconstructions in Western Europe success set spur the use of aid vehicle in promoting development, but the failure of aid to achieve same in least developed nations is a case for concerns. The contemporary experiences generated heated debate on the relevance of aid to national development and spurred the queries of rationalities behind aid (Moyo, 2009; Burnell, 2008 and 1997; Collier, 2008 and Todaro and Smith, 2011). In the first decade of twenty-first century, the common reason given by donor nations for giving aid are moral and humanitarian interest in helping the less privileged. Some development assistance has been in the form of emergency food relief and medical program currently in Afghanistan, Somalia, Haiti, Southern Sudan and Syria. As true as that may be, there are historical evidences that support the claim that no donor nation give aid without expecting something in return. Some of the reasons are political and economic gain, counterterrorism especially after September 11, antinarcotics in Mexico and Latin America, and prevention of HIV and AIDS. Common motivation by donor countries is political benefits. Burnell (2008) argued that even US aid for post-war reconstruction in Western Europe was motivated by political and concerns for national security and superpower competition with USSR (Todaro and Smith, 2011). The hidden rationale of the US Marshall Plan was mainly to contain the spread of communism. The success achieved in bringing Western Europe back on sound economic footing was clear, but it also gave US the advantage of influencing foreign policy with that part of Europe becoming its allies. It enhanced the emergence of US-led multilateralism (Moyo 2009:12). The focus shifted in 1950s from Europe to developing nations while the agenda of containment embodied in the US aid programme dictated a shift in emphasis toward political, economic, and military support for friendly less developed nations especially those considered geographically strategic (Todaro and Smith, 2011:701). The Cold War marked the political contest between USSR and US. African countries were used as battleground to make the newly independent nations either communist or capitalist. The protracted disaster in Syria reflects the hegemony between Russia, China and US. In the Latin America, Alliance for Progress in 1960s was established to promote economic development of the region, but underlying that is the motivation to counter rise of Fidel Castro in Cuba and the fear of communism in other Latin America nations. The doomed fate of the Alliance for Progress showed its irrelevance to US scheme of affairs. Dated back to 1940s, Britain government gives aid for infrastructural projects to poorer nations, majorly to commonwealth member countries and British Colonial Development and Welfare Act was established to fund social services (Moyo, 2009). In sum, Western donors give aid as a political instrument to prop up friendly political regimes in developing nations based on their own national security interest. Critics of aid argued that the fight against AIDS is to prevent it from spreading to the West and likely state collapse that might be a haven for terrorist (Moyo, 2009; Maathai, 2009). There is strong economic rationale for foreign aid from developed countries. Chief among them are Japan and Germany. Japan gave aid to less developed Asian neighbours to promote its private investments and expanding trade. Chinas aid in Africa currently have same motive. The aim of Marshall Plan was for Europe to regain their social, political and economic stability and to regain their level of development. US injected about $100bilion (current value of the aid package) as rescue package under George C. Marshal, the then US Secretary of State in 1947, for post- Second World War reconstruction in Europe. The birth of Breton Wood institutions (IMF, World Bank and WTO) in 1940s with the agenda of restructuring international finance, establishing a multilateral trading system and formation of framework for economic cooperation to avoid the experience of the Great Depression of 1930s reinforce aid system. They were to enhance capital investment for reconstruction and manage global financi al system purposely to share investment risk between countries where all member nation bankroll the risk involved (Moyo, 2009; Todaro and Smith, 2011 and Dessai and Porter, 2008). Economic benefits also accrues to the donor countries especially from tied aid loans or grants that requires the recipient countries to use the fund to purchase goods and services from the donor countries. According to Todaro and Smith (2011:705), a large fraction of US aid has been spent on American Consultants and other US businesses. The recipient countries accept aid based on their belief on the economic tenets of developed nations as a requirement for the achievement of their own development and in some cases and lack of domestic resources. To some corrupt leaders aid is attractive because they hardly account for it and sometimes used to suppress opposition and retain power military assistance. Moral obligation, some argued, compel the donor countries to assist the less developed nation on humanitarian ground. They believe that the rich countries, especially former colonial masters such as Britain, US, France, Italy, Spain Portugal to mention a few, owe the poor countries reparation for their past exploitations. Aid and aid governance has generated hot debate and political disagreement among scholars, policy-makers and the public (Collier, 2008:99). The first argument is on aid effectiveness in promoting development. Proponents of aid believe that it has engendered economic growth and transformed many developing countries. The Nobel Laureate, Maathai (2009), in her book The Challenge for Africa observed that Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) alone has provided over $650 billion in development assistance to sub-Saharan Africa. She noted the flows have not reversed the increasing death of poor African because of malaria, HIV/AIDS and other deadly diseases. However, the impact of foreign media and development experts concern on Africa issues especially on preventable diseases has been helpful, but that is not the concerns of sub-Saharan Africa public officials. Collier (2008) noted that aid tends to speed up growth. In Africa, he pointed out that aid has added about 1 percent to the countries annual economic growth rate of the bottom billion. Though not encouraging, but according to him, the growth rate in those countries has been less than 1 percent or even zero. The aid addition to the growth rate is the difference between economic stagnation and severe cumulative decline and without aid, cumulatively the countries of the bottom billion over would have become poorer than they are today: aid has been a holding operation preventing things from falling apart (Collier, 2008:100). The renewed commitment of the world leaders and international organisation involved in the governance of aid reinforced the position that aid is relevant to the development of sub-Saharan Africa. They agreed that properly administered aid would meet its development objectives (Paris Declaration, 2005). Critics of aid argue that aid does not promote growth and develop ment, but contrarily may even be destructive to development of developing nations. Moyo (2009) vigorously criticised aid in Africa. She argued: the notion that aid can alleviate systemic poverty and has done so is a myth. Millions in Africa are poorer today because of aid; misery and poverty have not ended but have increased. Aid has been and continue to be, an unmitigated political, economic, and humanitarian disaster for the most part of the developing world (p.xix). In the same vein, Peter Baueras cited by Moyo (2009), noted that aid distort development as the fund ended in the hand of a selected few. He said aid is a form of taxing the poor in the developed countries to enrich the new elites in their former colonies. Baueras concluded that aid-based theories and policies are inconsistent with sound economic management and with reality of the situation in developing nations. The argument that aid had had little or no impact on the development of sub-Saharan Africa is strong. However, one can be curious to ask what befell the income from the countries earnings from natural resources and other revenues. In reality, those resources also have not been of any impact on the development of the region (Ushie, 2012; Handley et al. 2009; and Chibba 2011, TI 2012). Moyo (2009) agreed on this and admitted that the problem of Africa is beyond aid because domestic earnings also seem to be a curse. Collier argued that the growth rate in countries with natural resources (oil windfall) such as Nigeria that earned over $280 billion from crude oil were not different from those other countries without such resources and with even negative effect of oil windfall on their economies. He lamented that more aid without changes in approach to governance is doomed to fail: but as a general instruments (aid) for developing the bottom billion they would be more reassuring had oil and other natural resources revenues been more successful in achieving development(2008:102). Maathai supported this claim: Unfortunately, too many African governments have used their budgets, and their natural resources, not to invest in their people, but in precisely the opposite manner(Maathai, 2009:75). Another dimension of aid debate is aid-conditionality. Formal president of South Africa, Dr Nelson Mandela, at the United Nation Summit in 1995 said it is to perpetuate difficulties of the South for the North to relate to us as hapless victims to dictate to regarding loans and the employment of aid (cited by Todaro and Smith,2011:684). Argument against conditionality is popular among civil society, governments and the international institutions involving in the governance of aid. Conditionality-based lending started in 1980s with recommendation for economic policy and institutional reform with Structural Adjustment Programme taken central stage. It incurred resentment because people viewed it as coercive and offensive to sovereignty (Burnell, 2008:505). Based on Dollar and Burnsides (1998) recommendation, selectivity was introduced to aid favouring countries that show commitment to sound development policy and good governance. Critics view this as depriving assistance to countries that desperately need the help. Nevertheless, Collier noted that aid agencies have little incentives to enforce conditionality because people get promotion by disbursing fund, not by withholding it. He advocated for a shift in the focus of governments to the welfare of their citizens. He argued that the internal process by which citizens force government to be accountable to them is weak in developing nations and must be strengthened. To achieve this, external pressure is needed and legitimate: Why should we give aid to governments that are not willing to let their citizens see how they spend it (2008:110). The focus of all stakeholders in aid governance now must be how to make it effective in meeting its development goals, because aid is at the heart of governance today and it is unlikely to disappear, (Moyo, 2009:66). Aid effectiveness can be viewed as efforts gear toward ensuring the maximum impact of development aid for getting the most possible lives improved. Elliot Stern et al (2008:20) based on the principle of Paris Declaration (PD) defined aid effectiveness as arrangement for the planning, management and deployment of aid that is efficient, reduces transaction costs and targeted towards development outcomes including poverty reduction. The theme of PD is how to improve the way aid is delivered and it was to supplement PRSP. It demands from donors to harmonise their assistance with the policies and systems of recipient countries to support country-owned development (Booth 2011). Development effectiveness of aid is conceived as the effectiveness of aid in promoting development. Human development requires more than achieving economic growth in GDP and raising income. The focus of development must shift from national income accounting to people-centred policies. Development is defined as the process of improving the quality of all human lives and capabilities by raising peoples levels of living, self-esteem, and freedom (Todaro and Smith, 2011:5). Sakiko Fukuda-Parr (2003) viewed development as the elimination of obstacles to what a person can do in life. Obstacles such as illiteracy, ill health, lack of access to resources or lack of civil and political freedoms. Amartya Sen (2001) noted that development should be viewed as a process of expanding the real freedom that people enjoyed. UNDP (2001) supported this by saying that the fundamental capabilities for human development are to live healthy and long lives, to be educated, to have access to resources for good standard of living and ability to participate in the life of the community. THE CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Challenges facing sub-Saharan Africa are multi-dimensional, most importantly, the prevalence of extreme poverty and chronic diseases across the region. They form one-sixth of the world population, described by Paul Collier (2008) as the bottom billion. Sachs (2005:18) described them as too ill, hungry, or destitute to step the ladder of development. The webs of poverty make it extremely difficult to escape it on their own. Extreme poverty, according to him, means that households are unable to meet their basic physiological or biological needs for survival. Education is unaffordable for the children and there is no proper shelter for the household. Sachs (2005) reported that 93 percent of the world poor population lives in three regions: East Asia, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. While it has reduced substantially in Asia, the percentage of extremely poor people has risen in sub-Saharan Africa (Handley et al. 2009; Moyo 2009; and Collier 2008). National Bureau of Economic Research (NGO) as quoted by Maathai (2009) reported that the economic growth of the world grew at 2 percent between 1960 and 2001, but the reverse was the case in Africa. She noted, GDP growth was negative from 1974 to mid-1990s and by 2003, sub-Saharan Africa GDP lowered by 11 percent than thirty previous years (p.48). In early 1960s, only 10 percent of the world poor were African, but in year 2000, African population formed 50 percent of the world poor. The growth rate of sub-Saharan Africa countries did not exceed 0.5 since 1960 when the population was 277million. With a population of over 900million, the growth rate remains unchanged. Such economic performance cannot guarantee meeting the basic needs of the people. Moyo (2009) also noted that sub-Saharan Africa remain the poorest region in the world with per capital income of $1 a day, lower than what it was in 1970s. The number of people from that region living in abject poverty doubled between 1981 and 2002. UNDP(2007) cited by Moyo(2009) predicted that by 2015, one-third of third of the world poor would be African contrary to one fifth in 1990. Life expectancy stands at 50year, the lowest in the world. And still, across important indicator life expectancy, literacy rate, maternal- infant mortality and income inequality the trend in Africa is not just downwards: Africa is (negatively) decoupling from the progress being made across the rest of the world(Moyo 2009:6). Collins (2012) described poverty as one of the greatest challenges to human security and basic human needs. In Nigerian newspaper, the Punch of 27th February 2013, former president of US, Bill Clinton said the cause of Boko Haram (Western Education is bad) insurgency in the Nige ria and other sub-Saharan countries are rooted in prevalence of extreme poverty. Sub-Saharan Africa is now a theatre of terrorism. Some of the factors adduced for these challenges in sub-Saharan Africa are classified as geographical, historical, cultural, tribal and institutional. Collier (2008) argued that geographical environment and topography of a country determines its wealth and success. Some environments are easier to manipulate than others are. This gives some society opportunity to tend plants and animal better than others do. The climatic condition, location, topography, species of plants and animals influences peoples ability to provide food for consumption and export. These have positive impact on the economic and development (Moyo 2009). Jeffrey Sachs (2005) gave example of how the climate and location of Britain helped in its economic and social development. He said, Geographical location of Britain enabled it to benefit from trade, productive agriculture and energy resources in vast stock of coal (p.35). He revealed that Britain has favourable climatic condition for agriculture and extensive navig able river ways for internal and external trade. The reverse is the case in sub-Saharan Africa. Historical factors particularly, colonialism was given as one of the reasons for poverty and underdevelopment in Africa. Sachs (2005) opined that Europe superior powers coax weaker societies to take action favourable to their advantage. They commandeered natural resources including natural wealth of Africa, and private army were raised to ensure compliance (p.41). Maathai (2009) also noted that the legacy of colonial master the territories they established was meant to serve their interest. They had no genuine interest in the development of the local population, but in raw materials to their various countries. She noted that outcasts of the traditional society that cooperated with the colonial authority were elevated to positions that they would never have held in traditional societal institutions. This cultivated a system that de-emphasised merit and competence that still endures today. It perpetuates underdevelopment because merit and competence is not a condition in filling offi cial positions against sound governance and justice. Even after independence, the new leader faile